A Consortium of Octopuses

Rosie Bibby on 7 April 2024

Released from the research vessel Falkor in late 2023, a remotely operated vehicle dove into the depths of the Pacific Ocean off the Coast Rican coast. After descending 3km, two low temperature hydrothermal springs were discovered. You may be more familiar with hot hydrothermal vents, which hold a temperature of around 350°C making them easy to identify from their plumes of smoke arising from the sea floor. Contrastingly, low temperature springs warm the water to only about 10°C warmer than the seabed’s average of 2°C and are therefore much harder to identify. 

Previous explorations had ascertained low temperature hydrothermal springs as brooding areas for octopus as they gather to lay their eggs in areas of warmer water. But aboard the Falkor, an incredible discovery was made. These two new springs were found to be home to an octopus and skate nursery, withholding four previously undiscovered species of octopus! Details of each species is yet to be publicly known; however, one has been named the Dorado octopus after the nearby rock formation it was found near.

These new species of octopus have been identified as solitary by the researchers, and this is typical behaviour of deep-sea octopuses. Local scientific knowledge was utilised in these expeditions and the specimens that were collected will be displayed at the University of Costa Rica’s Museum of Zoology, for the locals to enjoy. It is vital to include local knowledge and expertise for biodiversity conservation as it can provide insight into areas and topics that were previously unknown by Western science. Moreover, this project trained local researchers into how to lead future expeditions such as these, to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the species in this area is achieved. 

Having the most up to date knowledge on biodiversity is vital for the formation of conservation policy. Due to the inaccessibility of deep marine environments, it is hard to achieve protection for these areas. Particularly as the prospects of deep-sea mining, which extracts mineral depositions from the seabed, is gathering motion and international legislation prohibiting it is absent. There are vast resources of nickel, cobalt, copper and other metals in the ocean, most of which have been untouched thus far. However, as many countries begin to make a green transition, there is a heightened demand for metals used in electric car batteries, wind turbines and solar panels, most of which can be found in the deep sea.

Although reducing our dependency on non-renewable energy is a positive step towards combatting climate change; the effects of deep-sea mining has proven to be disastrous for animal populations due to noise, vibration, suspended sediment and light pollution. Octopuses, alongside other deep-sea creatures, utilise sound for survival in the absence of light. If deep sea mining persists, this sensory ability will be contested, making navigation for finding food and partners difficult for such animals. Disturbance from mining could be detrimental to our new octopus species. Furthermore, as deep-sea ecosystems act as carbon sinks, destroying these habitats from deep sea mining could have an overall negative impact on the climate. As the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has yet to compile regulations against deep sea mining, the future for these newly discovered octopuses remains uncertain.

Are We Getting Dumber?

Rosie Bibby on 23 December 2023

After millions of years of evolution has bought the human race a brain size of 1600cc compared to that of a chimpanzee at 350cc. However, a recent press release has found a plethora of evidence to suggest human brain size is decreasing; resulting in lower IQs alongside mental health.

Our large brain is substantial but not compared to the 1700cc of a dolphin brain. These differences mostly arise due the nutrients we consume. Professor Micheal Crawford, the director of the Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition UK, claims omega-3 DHA, derived from algae, is they key fatty acid that stimulates our brains to express genes. He says this was the factor that “would have powered the increase in brain size and function.” In fact, dolphins are consuming considerably more omega-3 DHA than the average 21st century human.

Omega-3 DHL can be acquired from seafood including mussels, crabs, oysters and fish. The modern human consumes less of these than ever due to the shift in diet away from fats and towards carbohydrates and sugar. This arose from the misconception that it was the fat in our diets causing physical conditions such as heart disease, although evidence now suggests sugar is the biggest factor. The lack of seafood in our diets has led to “increased rates of depression, autism, ADHD and dementia” from lower omega-3 DHL intake; claims the CEO of the charity FoodfortheBrain, Patrick Holford.

Furthermore, Holford recommends if you are following a plant-based diet you “must supplement omega-3 DHL, derived from algae”. Getting a blood test to check your levels can help identify if you are taking the right amount of omega-3. This can be carried out via Food for the Brain’s pin prick test that can be delivered to your door!

If you’re feeling particularly adventurous, brain expert Professor Stephan Cunnane suggests a “shore-based diet” including “frogs, bird’s eggs and aquatic plants” are the best way to increase your brain power.

Professor Crawford also highlights that during pregnancy, a diet poor in omega-3 can lead to the child having learning and emotional problems from the lower IQ. This arises from how the body produces a substitute fat, called oleic acid, to fill the baby’s brain in the absence of omega-3 DHL.

In the past couple of decades it has been measured that IQ scores are falling. This follows the long-term study by Norwegian researchers, analysing the IQ scores of Norwegian men born from 1962-1991.  They found that their scores had been steadily dropping. Ole Rogeberg, head of the research group states “similar studies in Denmark, Britain, France and the Netherlands, Finland and Estonia have demonstrated a similar downward Trent in IQ scores”.  Since the shift in diet to carbohydrates and fatty acids, IQ scores have been on a downward trend at a 7% loss per generation.

The consequences of a lower IQ score and brain size is not only related to intelligence but has been found to increase the risk of developing a mental health condition. A report from the World Health Organisation (WHO), found mental health conditions has risen by 13% and now one in earth people suffer from some form of mental illness. This corresponds with how there were over 100 million antidepressant prescriptions last year, in the UK alone.

“Our genome is adapted to eating the wild foods we ate during our species’ evolution” according to Crawford. So, before you chow down on your plate of chips or bowl of cornflakes, consider the effects these foods will have on your brain. Perhaps a meal containing more aquatic plants or fish will help you finish your assignment, so you can get to the pub sooner!

Reducing Honeybee Stress in the Winter

Rosie Bibby on 23 December 2023

The art of beekeeping dates back to the Egyptians, where they kept honeybee colonies in pottery. It has evolved far from this through revolutionary science and innovation. However, new research suggests there is a common misconception about colonies and their hives that could be putting them at risk.

Image from a temple dated 2400BC evidencing beekeeping (ancient-origins.net)

The misconception is that honeybees (Apis mellifera), huddle together in the hive when under cold temperatures to insulate the colony. In light of this, hives have been built with walls only 19mm thick compared to tree hollows, where natural nests are formed, that can be as thick as 150mm. Previous research found manufactured hives to have up to seven times more heat loss than those found in nature.

New findings from University of Leeds PhD student Derek Mitchell, propose that the bees are being subjected to thermal stress due to the poor insulation of manufactured hives. This evidence comes from studies on the clustering behaviour of bees and observing how heat interacts within the hive. The huddle of bees consists of an inner layer, called the cluster core, and the outer layer, known as the cluster mantle.

Using his background in mechanical engineering, Mr Mitchell discovered that the cluster mantle is acting more like a heat sink than an insulation mechanism. As “the cluster mantle does not meet any (of) the four insulation criteria identified and meets all three heat sink criteria”. This is because, as the bees on the outside of the cluster become cold, they migrate towards the centre and the warmth of the bees that can still produce heat. Consequently, thermal conductivity increases, leading to heat loss as heat moves out from the center of the huddle outwards. There is a complex relationship between the colony and thermo-fluids including heat, radiation, air and water vapour; this needs to be better understood to enable the proper care for domestic honeybees.

Therefore, it was concluded that the clustering behaviour is not a clever insulation mechanism from the colony but a survival reaction to the extreme cold. Mitchell described that “clustering is not a wrapping of a thick blanket to keep warm – but more like a desperate struggle to crowd closer to the fire or otherwise die”. Other survival techniques in bees include eating their own young. Behaviour such as this would want to be avoided as it can damage the colony and reduce the honey yield for the beekeeper. The inadequacy of man-made hives has lead to this behaviour amongst domesticated bees, therefore, efforts need to be made to increase the insulation efficiency of manufactured hives.

Image of hives in a cold landscape (Scott Hall)

This research aims to contribute towards the debate on the ethical treatment of honeybees. With Mitchell aspiring to “raise awareness of the welfare issues and to help educate beekeepers about the complex interaction of the colony enclosure and thermo-fluids”.  When buying honey, you can make more ethical choices based on how the honey has been produced.

Removing honey from the hive on a regular basis can lead to bee population decline. This anthropogenic focused, profit driven method of beekeeping is damaging to honeybees. When buying honey, smaller scale, bee focused companies are recommended for a more ethical choice. A bee centred approach includes more natural and balanced beekeeping which isn’t as stressful on the population.

There is an issue with certifying UK honey as ‘organic’ because it is uncertain whether the bees are visiting only organically grown flowers. Locally sourced honey can be a better choice if you are willing to contact the beekeeper about their practices. The website ‘Ethical Consumer’ contains a list of ethically approved honey brands that can help you make bee-friendly choices if you wish to include honey in your diet. The research paper entitled ‘Honeybee cluster – not insulation but stressful heat sink’ can be found online here.

“Triple Star” Discovery Could Revolutionise Understanding of Stellar Evolution

Zoe Parker on 23 December 2023

Although star formation may be seen as trivial for stars like our sun, some types are more elusive than others. Massive Be type stars are one such example often found in binary systems, where two stars obit each other. “The best point of reference for that is if you’ve watched Star Wars, there are planets where they have two Suns” explains Johnathan Dodd, PhD student and collaborator on the research. However, not much is known about their formation.

A recent discovery was made by Professor René Oudmaijer, PhD student Johnathan Dodd along with PhD student Isaac Radley from the University of Leeds’ School of Physics and Astronomy and two former Leeds academics Dr Miguel Vioque of the ALMA Observatory in Chile and Dr Abigail Frost at the European Southern Observatory in Chile. It suggests that these stars may also exist in triplet systems (where there are three stars orbiting each other), as well as double. This may help to reveal the long-awaited mystery of their formation since their identification via their emission lines in 1866 by Angelo Secchi.

The “triple star” discovery by Professor Oudmaijer and his team was made by using European Space Agency’s Gaia satellite and could cause ripples of excitement in the astrophysics community. It may also aid our understanding of neutron stars, gravitational waves, and black holes.

Principal Investigator Professor Oudmaijer said “there’s a revolution going on in physics at the moment around gravitational waves. We have only been observing these gravitational waves for a few years now, and these have been found to be due to merging black holes.”  

“We know that these enigmatic objects – black holes and neutron stars – exist, but we don’t know much about the stars that would become them. Our findings provide a clue to understanding these gravitational wave sources.” 

He added that “over the last decade or so, astronomers have found that binarity is an incredibly important element in stellar evolution. We are now moving more towards the idea it is even more complex than that and that triple stars need to be considered.” 

“Indeed,” Oudmaijer said, “triples have become the new binaries”.

Video Credit: ESO/L. Calçada eso.org/public/archives/videos/hd_and_apple/eso2204b.m4v (Artist’s animation of what the system could look like)
New research using data from ESO’s Very Large Telescope and Very Large Telescope Interferometer has revealed that HR 6819, previously believed to be a triple system with a black hole, is in fact a system of two stars with no black hole. The scientists, a KU Leuven-ESO team, believe they have observed this binary system in a brief moment after one of the stars sucked the atmosphere off its companion, a phenomenon often referred to as “stellar vampirism”. This animation shows what the system might look like; it’s composed of an oblate star with a disc around it (a Be “vampire” star; foreground) and B-type star that has been stripped of its atmosphere (background).

Their research involved looking for further away secondary stars within various data sets to build a picture that at larger separations the number of companions stars is comparable between Herbig Be and B type stars.

“We observed the way the stars move across the night sky, over longer periods like 10 years, and shorter periods of around six months. If a star moves in a straight line, we know there’s just one star, but if there is more than one, we will see a slight wobble or, in the best case, a spiral.” Mr Dodd explained.

The two types of stars they were most interested in are B and Be; the former displays hydrogen emission lines and the latter are main sequence non-supergiant stars that have Balmer series emission lines.

“We applied this across the two groups of stars that we are looking at – the B stars and the Be stars – and what we found, confusingly, is that at first it looks like the Be stars have a lower rate of companions than the B stars. This is interesting because we’d expect them to have a higher rate” Mr Dodd added.

In a large proportion of the sample analysed had the inference that a third body was influencing the system, resulting in the Be star having a reduced distance from its companion. This causes mass transfer from the two stars as the Be star ‘sucks’ matter from the other. It’s been dubbed a “vampire” Be star and this behaviour forms the characteristic disc around the Be star.

Image credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser/S.E. de Mink (Artist’s impression of a vampire star and its victim | ESO)
Artist’s impression of a vampire star (left) stealing material from its victim: New research using data from ESO’s Very Large Telescope has revealed that the hottest and brightest stars, which are known as O stars, are often found in close pairs. Many of such binaries will at some point transfer mass from one star to another, a kind of stellar vampirism depicted in this artist’s impression.

A reason as to why the companion is hard to spot could be due to them being obscured by the disc and reduced so much by the Be star making them very small and faint.

Professor Oudmaijer said “the fact that we do not see them might be because they are now too faint to be detected.”

This breakthrough has opened up another area of exciting research.

Their paper entitled “Gaia uncovers difference in B and Be star binarity at small scales: evidence for mass transfer causing the Be phenomenon” was published on the 21st November and can be found here.

Researchers Identify Largest Ever Solar Storm using Ancient 14,300-year-old Tree Rings

Zoe Parker on 23 November 2023

The climate crisis has caused the Earth to be ravaged in more storms and extreme weather events in recent years. We see large scale storms on other planets – Jupiter’s famous ‘Great Red Spot’ is actually an ongoing storm that was first seen in 1879 – and even on our sun. Solar storms can impact us on Earth due to how close we are to our host star. Although the sun hasn’t had a massive solar outburst within recorded human history, scientists know there have been some in the past. Known as Miyake Events, there have been a total of nine such solar storms, but none previously have been on the same scale as the one discovered on the 9th October this year in tree rings found in the Drouzet river, France.

Earlier last month a team of international scientists from institutions all over the world, including the University of Leeds, have announced that they have discovered evidence of the largest ever solar storm that is thought to have occurred over 14,300 years ago. They were able to do this by slicing apart the subfossil (remains of tree trunks that are not yet fully fossilised) into separate tree rings so they were ready for analysis. “We then carefully pieced together the separate trees to create a longer timeline using a method called dendrochronology [the study of annual tree growth]. This allowed us to discover invaluable information on past environmental changes and measure radiocarbon over an uncharted period of solar activity” explains Associate Professor Cécile Miramont, a member of the research team.

Tree rings of a buried subfossil tree in the Drouzet river. Photo Credit: Cécile Miramont 

What they were looking for was a large spike in radiocarbon levels. “Radiocarbon is constantly being produced in the upper atmosphere through a chain of reactions initiated by cosmic rays” said Professor Edouard Bard, the lead author of the study. “Extreme solar events including solar flares and coronal mass ejections can also create short-term bursts of energetic particles which are preserved as huge spikes in radiocarbon production occurring over the course of just a single year” he adds. The scientists compared the tree ring samples to Greenland ice core beryllium measurements and determined that both were caused by this giant solar storm.

As fascinating as this is, there is a warning to heed here. It’s imperative that research like this is done so that preparation can be done in the event that a solar storm does occur. Because of the way our energy and telecommunication systems work, if a solar storm hit tomorrow, they would be almost completely destroyed and cost billions of pounds to repair. Professor Tim Heaton, lecturer and researcher at the University of Leeds, warns that it could “permanently damage the transformers in our electricity grids, resulting in huge and widespread blackouts lasting months” as well as damaging satellites that “we all rely on for navigation and telecommunication, leaving them unusable. They would also create severe radiation risks to astronauts”.

Subfossil trees in the banks of the Drouzet river. Photo Credit: Cécile Miramont 

Very little is known about these solar storms, especially as they have never been observed with scientific instruments directly. “A precise understanding of our past is essential if we want to accurately predict our future and mitigate potential risks. We still have much to learn. Each new discovery not only helps answer existing key questions but can also generate new ones” states Professor Heaton.

The team have published a paper detailing their findings and can be found here.

The race to perfect the liquid biopsy

Hannah Dale and Lily Page on 26 October 2023

Precision medicine alongside liquid biopsy brings us closer than ever to revolutionising the management of lung cancer.

Lung cancer has the highest global mortality rates of all cancers, due to the fact that many cases are only detected at advanced stages of disease. Whilst lung cancer grows more prevalent than ever, we are seeing increasing development in precision medicine techniques and non-invasive methods of obtaining samples such as liquid biopsy. 85% of lung cancers are classified as non-small cell lung cancer. Ultimately treatments are similar across 3 sub-types, however research suggests varying responses to drug treatment due to differing genetic characteristics.

Liquid biopsies would revolutionise cancer care

Currently, we use imaging techniques such as CT scans, MRIs and X-rays, followed by surgical biopsies to detect and diagnose tumours. Liquid biopsies refer to blood tests that analyse circulating tumour debris, shed into the blood, as an alternative to tumour biopsies which are more invasive. Scientists can use highly sensitive genetic techniques in tandem with liquid biopsy, such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). This is a powerful, high-throughput genetic sequencing technology;  such methods allow us to detect of cancers and dictate tailored treatments, saving lives and preventing reoccurrence.

Using liquid biopsy alongside genomic profiling techniques such as NGS, means we can easily access and profile genetic material and identify specific gene mutations. This will allow us to choose a tailored treatment which is more effective for the specific cancer and hence drastically improve the success of the treatment. With real time genetic information (facilitated by liquid biopsy) regarding the molecular characteristics of the disease, we can apply targeted, novel treatments which act on mutated (cancer) cells unlike older treatments which may destroy healthy cells in their path. Not only would this mean more positive treatment outcomes, but also provide the patient with a better quality of life due to the ease of sampling blood and serial repeats for real-time monitoring. Therefore, liquid biopsies would revolutionise cancer care on multiple fronts. 

Liquid biopsy is right on the cusp of starting a revolution

It is estimated that up to 55% of people with non-small cell lung cancer may experience recurrence of disease. This can be due to small groups of residual cancer cells which are too small to be seen on scans.  However, as the sensitivity of the genetic tests improve, we may be able to detect the remaining cells in the blood and treat people ahead of symptom presentation before the cells can proliferate again.

Revolutionising the management of lung cancer would involve drastically improving long term survival through detection, treatment, monitoring, and preventing recurrence through detecting relapse and resistance genotyping. It is certainly conceivable that liquid biopsy, combined with techniques such as NGS may facilitate this revolution. However, for widespread clinical use, the optimisation of test sensitivity and extraction techniques must be achieved to justify the replacement of established methods. More research is needed to determine these facts and it’s constantly accelerating. Only then, with the correct validation and facilities can we use the liquid biopsy to its full capacity. Glimmers of the future have already been seen in the FDA approval of the companion diagnostic Guardant360 CDx for osimertinib: testing patient eligibility based specific biomarkers. Oncologists have already deemed this as completely transformational for this group of patients in delivering highly precise and effective treatments. An interview with a precision oncologist revealed that, “liquid biopsy is right on the cusp of starting a revolution”, and the case is not “if” we will see results, but “when”.

Should we be adding more than just fluoride to our water?

Finn Laslett on 25 October 2023

Fluoride has been routinely added to the public drinking water of the UK, US and much of the rest of the world since 1945, when the first pilot study began in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The practice originated in the early 1900s, when it was discovered that tooth decay, and varying unaccountably between different geographic regions, was correlated with the concentration of the element fluorine found in the local drinking water. After the successful experiment in Grand Rapids, in which children’s tooth decay halved, fluoridation became common policy in the US, and remains a routine public health intervention globally to this day.

Now, more than a century later, evidence is emerging of another, more profound relationship. In 2009, researchers in Japan measured the levels of lithium in the drinking water of Oita prefecture and found that where more lithium was present, local people were less likely to die by suicide.  Since then, dozens more studies have been published in concurrence, and scientists have been aware of lithium’s influence in other domains for even longer. In 1990, it was observed that high-lithium counties in Texas saw fewer arrests for robbery, violent behaviour and drug possession than low-lithium ones. In the areas with the highest levels, the effects are striking. The ‘lithium triangle’ between Argentina, Chile and Bolivia, which together account for 58% of global lithium deposits, accordingly has the highest concentration of lithium in drinking water. In the Chilean portion of the triangle, there are 10 suicides for every 100,000 people, compared with a national of average of 12.5.

To some, this may come as no surprise. The effects of lithium on behaviour have been known for many years, with psychiatrists prescribing lithium salts as far back as the 19th century. Until 1948, the soft drink 7up contained lithium for its mood-stabilising properties, and the metal remains synonymous with the treatment of bipolar disorder to this day. Despite this, the mechanism of action still eludes understanding. Once lithium ions enter the brain, their simple structure and small size allow them to be dispersed widely and affect the activity of nerves on every level. Where researchers identify an effect in one brain area, the opposite may be observed in another, and often results appear in the brains of bipolar or depression sufferers, but not in other individuals. The task is made even more impossible by the fact that the causes of bipolar, depression, and psychiatric illnesses on the whole are poorly understood. What is certain, however, is that lithium works, remaining the first-line treatment for bipolar disorder and the gold standard for those whose depression won’t respond to traditional antidepressants.

Why, then, is it not added in with the fluoride to our water? There are several arguments, both scientific and ethical. For one, unlike fluoride, which has few side-effects at low doses, lithium may not be safe for everyone to consume. Children and pregnant women pose a barrier to any mass treatment, and this year it was observed that infants born in areas of Denmark with more lithium in the water are more likely to have autism. Lithium is also often contraindicated for people with kidney and thyroid problems. Ethically, there is a significant difference between lithium and fluoride in that only one is psychoactive. In a world where conspiracy theories already abound, it would be bold to openly administer a genuinely mind-altering agent to the population. Furthermore, the notion of suicide is ethically complex, and some may question if its prevention in this way is the proper role of the state.

Regardless, mental illness and suicide are hugely important issues, and increasingly so. It may be that a safe dose exists, and it really would make us all happier. If governments are serious in their commitments to tackle mental illness, then perhaps large-scale interventions of this kind may warrant further investigation. 

The Magic of Mushrooms

Pearl McLean Jennings on 1 May 2023

The fruiting body of mushrooms are conventionally used for food, but they make up only a small part of the fungi. What goes on underneath the soil and the by-products of fungal growth is what is peaking scientific interest for the development of sustainable products.