A Universe Unbound: Commemorating 100 Years Since Edwin Hubble Revealed the Andromeda Galaxy

Longoae Domingos Tembwa on 23 November 2024

On November 23, 1924, a pivotal moment in the history of astronomy unfolded. Edwin Hubble, an astronomer at the Mount Wilson Observatory, announced, via the New York Times, evidence that the Andromeda “nebula” was not a part of the Milky Way but a galaxy in its own right. This revelation not only expanded the known scale of the universe but also laid the groundwork for modern cosmology, reshaping humanity’s understanding of the cosmos. A century on, we celebrate his groundbreaking discovery and reflect on its profound legacy.

In the early 20th century, the prevailing view of the universe was vastly limited. Most astronomers believed that the Milky Way was the entirety of space, and celestial objects like Andromeda were thought to be “spiral nebulae,” regions of gas and dust within our galaxy. Despite emerging evidence that hinted at a larger universe, the concept of other galaxies remained speculative.

The debate over the nature of these nebulae reached a fever pitch in the early 1920s. Astronomers like Heber Curtis argued that spiral nebulae were separate galaxies, or “island universes,” while others, including Harlow Shapley, maintained that they were part of the Milky Way. The astronomical community lacked the tools and methods to definitively resolve the issue—until Hubble’s work changed everything.

Edwin Hubble’s journey to uncover the true nature of Andromeda began with the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory in California. At the time, it was the most powerful telescope in the world, capable of unprecedented observational precision.

Hubble applied a key discovery made by astronomer Henrietta Leavitt. Leavitt had identified a relationship between the brightness and periodicity of Cepheid variable stars, which allowed astronomers to measure their distances. By observing Cepheid variables within Andromeda, He determined that the “nebula” was far too distant to be part of the Milky Way—approximately 2.5 million light-years away.

This finding was revolutionary. It confirmed that Andromeda was a galaxy in its own right, similar in scale to the Milky Way. Hubble’s announcement effectively ended the “Great Debate” and unveiled a universe teeming with galaxies.

Hubble’s discovery had immediate and far-reaching implications. For the first time, humanity grasped the staggering scale of the universe, recognising that the Milky Way was just one galaxy among countless others. This realisation shifted the focus of astronomy toward understanding the structure, distribution, and behaviour of galaxies.

The discovery also set the stage for subsequent breakthroughs in cosmology. In 1929, he would go on to show that galaxies are receding from one another, providing the first observational evidence of the universe’s expansion and laying the foundation for the Big Bang theory.

Edwin Hubble’s work has had a lasting influence on generations of astronomers. His insights catalysed research into galaxy formation, the large-scale structure of the cosmos, and the mysterious forces driving the universe’s expansion, such as dark energy.

The Hubble Space Telescope, named in his honour, continues to push the boundaries of our understanding. Launched in 1990, this iconic observatory has captured images of distant galaxies, nebulae, and cosmic phenomena, offering glimpses into the early universe and refining our models of cosmic evolution. The telescope has helped determine the age of the universe: now known to be 13.8 billion years. In 2004, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field was released, allowing astronomers to look even further back in the time of the cosmos (Royal Museums Greenwich).

As we commemorate the centennial of Hubble’s revelation, we are reminded of the enduring power of curiosity and discovery. The astronomer’s breakthrough opened the door to an era of cosmic exploration, paving the way for advanced instruments like the James Webb Space Telescope, launched in December 2021, which now peers deeper into the universe than ever before. Indeed, the telescope has found galaxies that are brighter than expected, which may also be more efficient at creating stars. It also discovered the earliest and most distant galaxy yet, JADES-GS-z14-0 (ESA/WEBB).

The Andromeda Galaxy, once a misunderstood “nebula”, now serves as a vivid symbol of our quest to understand the cosmos. Hubble’s work reminds us that the universe is vast, dynamic, and full of mysteries waiting to be uncovered—a humbling and inspiring legacy that continues to guide humanity’s exploration of the stars.

In commemorating this milestone, we honour not only Hubble but also the countless astronomers, past and present, who have expanded our view of the universe and illuminated our place within it. Here’s to another century of discovery.

This image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many turbulent stellar nurseries the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has observed during its 30-year lifetime. The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbour NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, approximately 163 000 light-years away.
  This NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope image of the cluster Westerlund 2 and its surroundings has been released to celebrate Hubble’s 25th year in orbit and a quarter of a century of new discoveries, stunning images and outstanding science. The image’s central region, containing the star cluster, blends visible-light data taken by the Advanced Camera for Surveys and near-infrared exposures taken by the Wide Field Camera 3. The surrounding region is composed of visible-light observations taken by the Advanced Camera for Surveys.
The narrow galaxy elegantly curving around its spherical companion in this image is a fantastic example of a truly strange and very rare phenomenon. This image, taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, depicts GAL-CLUS-022058s, located in the southern hemisphere constellation of Fornax (The Furnace). GAL-CLUS-022058s is the largest and one of the most complete Einstein rings ever discovered in our Universe. The object has been nicknamed by the Principal Investigator and his team who are studying this Einstein ring as the “Molten Ring”, which alludes to its appearance and host constellation. First theorised to exist by Einstein in his general theory of relativity, this object’s unusual shape can be explained by a process called gravitational lensing, which causes light shining from far away to be bent and pulled by the gravity of an object between its source and the observer. In this case, the light from the background galaxy has been distorted into the curve we see by the gravity of the galaxy cluster sitting in front of it. The near exact alignment of the background galaxy with the central elliptical galaxy of the cluster, seen in the middle of this image, has warped and magnified the image of the background galaxy around itself into an almost perfect ring. The gravity from other galaxies in the cluster is soon to cause additional distortions. Objects like these are the ideal laboratory in which to research galaxies too faint and distant to otherwise see.
The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope’s Wide Field Camera 3 observed Saturn on 20 June 2019 as the planet made its closest approach to Earth this year, at approximately 1.36 billion kilometres away.
This Hubble image gives the most detailed view of the entire Crab Nebula ever. The Crab is among the most interesting and well studied objects in astronomy. This image is the largest image ever taken with Hubble’s WFPC2 camera. It was assembled from 24 individual exposures taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and is the highest resolution image of the entire Crab Nebula ever made.
This image, captured with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, is the largest and sharpest image ever taken of the Andromeda galaxy — otherwise known as M31. This is a cropped version of the full image and has 1.5 billion pixels. You would need more than 600 HD television screens to display the whole image. It is the biggest Hubble image ever released and shows over 100 million stars and thousands of star clusters embedded in a section of the galaxy’s pancake-shaped disc stretching across over 40 000 light-years. This image is too large to be easily displayed at full resolution and is best appreciated using the zoom tool.
How did the first stars and galaxies form? The NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope is already providing new insights into this question. One of the largest programs in Webb’s first year of science is the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey, or JADES, which will devote about 32 days of telescope time to uncover and characterize faint, distant galaxies. While the data are still coming in, JADES already has discovered hundreds of galaxies that existed when the Universe was less than 600 million years old. The team also has identified galaxies sparkling with a multitude of young, hot stars. This infrared image shows a portion of an area of the sky known as GOODS-South, which has been well studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories. More than 45,000 galaxies are visible here. Using these and other data, the JADES team has discovered hundreds of galaxies that existed when the Universe was less than 600 million years old. The sheer number of these galaxies was far beyond predictions from observations made before Webb’s launch. The team also has identified galaxies that existed during a time known as the Epoch of Reionization, when the Universe underwent a transformation from opaque to transparent. Many of these galaxies shown unusually strong emission line signatures due to the creation of multitudes of hot, massive stars. In this image, blue, green, and red were assigned to Webb’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera) data at 0.9, 1.15, and 1.5 microns; 2.0, 2.77, and 3.55 microns; and 3.56, 4.1, and 4.44 microns (F090W, F115W, and F150W; F200W, F277W, and F335M; and F356W, F410M, and F444W), respectively.
An orange glow radiates from the centre of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse. The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the centre, that the older, cooler stars reside. Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy. Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way. When galaxies have a large resevoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions. One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it. This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.
All Image Credits: ESA/Hubble

The Flawed Utopia of Megalopolis: Why Bigger isn’t Always Better

Elysha Din on 22 November 2024

Image Credit: The Guardian

“People don’t need dreams. People need help now.” 

Francis Ford Coppola’s Megalopolis is a $120 million passion project that left many viewers mourning the past 138 minutes of their life.

Given Coppola’s credentials, one can understand the excitement of film fanatics when the making of Megalopolis was announced. Amongst Spielberg and Scorsese, Coppola is widely regarded as one of the most influential filmmakers in the history of cinema. He is best known for his iconic work in the 1970s: The Godfather (1972), The Godfather Part II (1974), and Apocalypse Now (1979). At age 85, he is the owner of five Academy Awards; six Golden Globes; a BAFTA Award; several family-friendly wineries; and a cannabis brand known as The Grower’s Series. A jack of all trades.

Why, then, is Megalopolis being regarded as the grandest box office flop of 2024? 

The film imagines an alternate United States, New Rome, which is dominated by an elite group of patrician families. While ordinary Romans live in poverty, the elite enjoy a life of decadence (a concept that is perhaps not too dystopian!). An ambitious architect/egomaniac, Cesar Catilina, proposes building ‘Megalopolis’, a utopian city. He faces resistance, but ultimately succeeds, rebuilding the city and creating a ‘better future’. The film explores the tension between idealism and pragmatism, blending classical influences with modern struggles.

In a Guardian article, Peter Bradshaw describes Megalopolis as “megabloated” and “megaboring”. Bradshaw was harsh, but was he wrong? For me, Megalopolis is a disordered disaster that makes shallow and vainly optimistic remarks about humanity’s future. It is a series of threads that dance around one another, but never seem to tie together. It seems like Coppola bit off more than he was prepared to chew.

Image Credit: IMDb

That said, there are elements that resist the “megaboring” denomination.

Right from the start, Megalopolis self-references as a fable: it understands the responsibility of that title, and it rises to the occasion. Coppola highlights the consequences of unchecked power. The focus on the Roman elite while the working class suffer offers sobering commentary on the uneven distribution of wealth and power that becomes even more pertinent in light of the recent US election. Coppola himself says, “to do a Roman epic set in modern America, I had no idea that the politics of today would make that so relevant” (2024).

The three male protagonists, Cesar Catilina (Adam Driver), Franklyn Cicero (Giancarlo Esposito) and Hamilton Crassus III (Jon Voight), epitomise male greed: three men intent on enriching themselves and asserting their political dominance. Crassus (Voight), the world’s richest man, represents everything wrong with New Rome: he is a morally corrupt narcissist obsessed with growing his own fortune. Ironically, Voight is an avid follower of Donald Trump, calling himself “Hollywood’s most outspoken Trump supporter” (2024).

Despite his egocentric tendencies, Cesar’s relationship with time almost makes Megalopolis worth the watch. His secret ability to stop time seems to be a metaphor for the artistic process: “artists can never lose track of time”.

Like many other aspects of this film, this element felt incomplete, forgotten about after the initial revelation. Still, the notion that art, and artists, have the ability to stop or control time is rather wholesome. 

Image Credit: The New Yorker

Megalopolis is a film that Coppola has been wanting to create since 1977. He attempted to produce it in 1989 and 2001, but both times he was refused. Surprisingly, studios did not want to finance this highly experimental project. Finally, after acquiring a large fortune in the winemaking business, Coppola decided to self-fund. To say that it was a self-funded project is not to say that he lacked resources (he had $120 million to play with, let’s not forget); but, it had its limitations. And while 138 minutes felt like a lifetime for anyone who went to see it in theatres, another hour or so would have been necessary to better flesh out the many untied threads.

The ending came with no real explanation of anything. Cesar, somehow, achieves his utopia; so, while it was a win for the billionaire megalomaniac, for everyone else, we can’t be sure.

I commend Coppola’s artful optimism. There is something to be said for seeking beyond the ordinary, and perhaps Megalopolis leaves audiences a little more willing to believe in a better future. Unfortunately, Coppola does little to convince me that rich narcissists are the way forward.

Words by Elysha Din

Vitality Roses secure 5th spot at FAST5 Netball World Series 2024 

Rosie Brabrook on 21 November 2024

Earlier this month, England Netball travelled to Christchurch, New Zealand for the third year to compete in the FAST5 Netball World Series 2024.

The FAST5 competition is a shorter, faster- paced version of the game with only 5 players of each side, three different scoring zones, power players and unlimited rolling substitutions.    

Over two days, England played six games against Jamaica, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Uganda and Jamaica again in their final match. 

After losing their opening match to South Africa 25-33 following a six- point shot within the power play period in the final seconds of their game, the Vitality Roses gave it their all to claim their first victory of the series against Jamaica.  

Unfortunately, the winning streak did not continue, as the Vitality Roses then lost the remaining of their 3 group stage games against Uganda, Australia and hosts New Zealand. 

Facing the Sunshine Girls again in the fifth/ sixth spot play off and final game of the weekend, the Vitality Roses were determined to finish in success and grab the 5th place spot in the FAST5 Netball World Series.

Following a tight final game, England Roses took the win after Jamaica’s Amanda Pinkey missed three attempts to score a six pointer in the fourth quarter Power Play minutes. 

Captain Zara Everitt, Harriet Jones and Sophie Kelly earned themselves Player of the Match awards across the series. 

Here’s the Vitality Rose’s Instagram round-up:

https://www.instagram.com/reel/DCNBnOIIsC8/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_linkhttps://www.instagram.com/reel/DCNBnOIIsC8/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link

The Vitality Roses hope to continue their triumph over Jamaica in the four- match Vitality Netball Horizon Series, beginning in Manchester, and ending in Kingston, Jamaica for the second leg of the series.  

Words by Rosie Brabrook

Ruben Amorim: United’s Saviour? 

Noah Robinson on 19 November 2024

“I’m not naive, I know it’s going to be very different, very difficult,” Ruben Amorim told reporters on the 10th of November after his final game in charge of Portuguese club Sporting. 

“I feel ready for the new challenge,”

-The New Manchester United manager said. 

The ‘new challenge’ has proven too demanding for six full-time managers since the legendary Sir Alex Ferguson left the club in 2013. Manchester United currently sit 13th in the Premier League, picking up just 15 points from 11 games, marking their worst start to a Premier League season since the competition started in 1992.

The club has won one game in four in the Europa League. The once dominant side are in need of a saviour…

Amorim joins United on the back of two monumental victories as manager of Sporting. His former side’s dismantling of Man City 4-1 in the Champions League will be a welcome sign for Man United’s fans. This was followed by a 4-2 comeback win over Braga, after trailing 2-0 at half time, leaving the Portuguese side with a perfect 11 out of 11 wins to start their league campaign. 

There are doubts, however, over whether the 39-year-old’s tactics will translate to Man United’s squad in the face of sterner Premier League opposition. Typically, Amorim plays a 3-4- 3 formation, placing emphasis on the wingbacks to provide width and create chances. Sporting’s first-choice wing backs provided 13 assists and 9 goals in Liga Portugal last season compared to just 5 assists and 2 goals from United’s starters. 

Luke Shaw and Tyrell Malacia, United’s left-footed left-backs, are rarely fit, forcing Diogo Dalot or Noussair Mazraoui to fill in, but both fullbacks are right-footed, making their crossing less effective. As a result, they are likely to drift centrally on the pitch, reducing space for the wide forwards who occupy central pockets in Amorim’s system. The exciting winger Alejandro Garnacho could be utilised as a wing back, but United will likely have to find a more defensive-minded solution in the transfer market. 

Amorim has the opportunity to bring Premier League and European glory back to Old Trafford for the first time since 2012 and 2008 respectively. Will his success in Portugal translate to the most competitive league in the world?

The Red Devils will be praying for a miracle. 

Words by Noah Robinson